Amphetamines have a mechanism of action quite similar to cocaine in that they block the reuptake of dopamine in addition to stimulating its release (Figure 4.16). This section will describe several sleep disorders as well as some of their treatment options. Sleep apnea is defined as a reduction or cessation of breathing during sleep. Gastrointestinal symptoms including abdominal pain, diarrhea, and vomiting. The early portion of stage 1 sleep producesalpha waves, which are relatively low frequency (813Hz), high amplitude patterns of electrical activity (waves) that become synchronized (Figure 4.8). Physiologically, the body can become addicted to opiate drugs in less than a week, including when taken as prescribed. During sleep, the pituitary gland secretes both FSH and LH which are important in regulating the reproductive system (Christensen et al., 2012; Sofikitis et al., 2008). Awareness of internal stimuli includes feeling pain, hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and being aware of our thoughts and emotions. Acetylcholine functions as a neurotransmitter in motor neurons. There may be many factors that contribute to insomnia, including age, drug use, exercise, mental status, and bedtime routines. If people are deprived of REM sleep and then allowed to sleep without disturbance, they will spend more time in REM sleep in what would appear to be an effort to recoup the lost time in REM. Some research suggests that species that face higher predatory risks sleep fewer hours than other species (Capellini et al., 2008), while other researchers suggest there is no relationship between the amount of time a given species spends in deep sleep and its predation risk (Lesku, Roth, Amlaner, & Lima, 2006). There is a trend that females report more somatic symptoms than males; thus, more females are diagnosed with somatic symptom disorder than males (APA, 2022). A hypnogram is a diagram of the stages of sleep as they occur during a period of sleep. Using crystal meth poses a number of serious long-term health issues, including dental problems (often called meth mouth), skin abrasions caused by excessive scratching, memory loss, sleep problems, violent behavior, paranoia, and hallucinations. While it is probably the most commonly used drug in the world, the potency of this particular drug pales in comparison to the other stimulant drugs described in this section. MDMA (3.4-methelynedioxy-methamphetamine, commonly known as ecstasy or Molly) is a mild stimulant with perception-altering effects. Nicotine is most commonly used in the form of tobacco products like cigarettes or chewing tobacco; therefore, there is a tremendous interest in developing effective smoking cessation techniques. More specifically, homeostasis is the body's tendency to monitor and maintain internal states, such as temperature and blood sugar, at fairly constant and stable levels. Interestingly, individuals who have increased levels of alpha brain wave activity (more often associated with wakefulness and transition into stage 1 sleep) during stage 3 often report that they do not feel refreshed upon waking, regardless of how long they slept (Stone, Taylor, McCrae, Kalsekar, & Lichstein, 2008). These individual differences in circadian patterns of activity are known as a persons chronotype, and research demonstrates that morning larks and night owls differ with regard to sleep regulation (Taillard, Philip, Coste, Sagaspe, & Bioulac, 2003). c. absence of subjective symptoms of disease. Originally reported as a safe alternative to the known cancer-causing agents found in cigarettes, vaping is now known to be very dangerous and has led to serious lung disease and death in users. Narcolepsy is associated with reduced levels of the signaling molecule hypocretin in some areas of the brain (De la Herrn-Arita & Drucker-Coln, 2012; Han, 2012), and the traditional stimulant drugs do not have direct effects on this system. Acute alcohol administration results in a variety of changes to consciousness. Caffeine is another stimulant drug. The virus is transmitted to people from wild animals and spreads in the human population through human-to-human transmission. Given the central role that sleep plays in our lives and the number of adverse consequences that have been associated with sleep deprivation, one would think that we would have a clear understanding of why it is that we sleep. He suffered from no apparent anatomical brain anomalies or psychological disorders. Stage 2 sleep is characterized by the appearance of both sleep spindles and K-complexes. In contrast, a person who haspsychological dependencehas an emotional, rather than physical, need for the drug and may use the drug to relieve psychological distress. One important regulator of sleep-wake cycles is the hormonemelatonin. In some cases, though, there may be no symptoms of inflammation at all. In fact, ameta-analysis, which is a study that combines the results of many related studies, conducted within the last decade indicates that by the time we are 65 years old, we average fewer than 7 hours of sleep per day (Ohayon, Carskadon, Guilleminault, & Vitiello, 2004). The woman used caffeine in the past to boost her mood and to provide energy, but over the course of several years, she increased her caffeine consumption to the point that she was consuming three liters of soda each day. A womans menstrual cycle is an example of a biological rhythma recurring, cyclical pattern of bodily changes. Many individuals diagnosed with sleep apnea first seek treatment because their sleeping partners indicate that they snore loudly and/or stop breathing for extended periods of time while sleeping (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013). Aches and pains, such as severe headache and muscle and joint pain. In some cases, users experience vivid visual hallucinations. Humans have an endogenous opioid neurotransmitter systemthe body makes small quantities of opioid compounds that bind to opioid receptors reducing pain and producing euphoria. The internal state of an object is the set of all its attributes' values. Anopioidis one of a category of drugs that includes heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine. Psychometric analysis indicates that the ISS is composed of four principle components, producing four subscales. Drug use disorders are addictive disorders, and the criteria for specific substance (drug) use disorders are described in DSM-5. How does hypnosis work? In terms of brain wave activity, stage 1 sleep is associated with both alpha and theta waves. Mescaline and LSD are serotonin agonists, and PCP (angel dust) and ketamine (an animal anesthetic) act as antagonists of the NMDA glutamate receptor. Brain waves during REM sleep appear very similar to brain waves during wakefulness. Melatonin release is stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light. Heavy meals may make you sleepy, but they can also lead to frequent awakenings due to gastric distress. As we move intostage 2 sleep, the body goes into a state of deep relaxation. The heart rate slows . Consider a patient who believed that as a result of his sleep apnea he had three car accidents in six weeks. (a) This is a statue of a meditating Buddha, representing one of the many religious traditions of which meditation plays a part. Some animals never sleep (e.g., some fish and amphibian species); other animals sleep very little without apparent negative consequences (e.g., giraffes); yet some animals (e.g., rats) die after two weeks of sleep deprivation (Siegel, 2008). Jet lag is a collection of symptoms that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment. It is possible that even the processing of emotional information is influenced by certain aspects of sleep (Walker, 2009). The average EVD case fatality rate is around 50%. Recent adaptations (e.g., Hobson, 2002) continue to update the theory based on accumulating evidence. Stage 3is often referred to as deep sleep or slow-wave sleep because this stage is characterized by low frequency (less than 3 Hz), high amplitudedelta waves(Figure 4.10). In the variation of mindful meditation, the meditators attention is focused on some internal process or an external object (Zeidan, Grant, Brown, McHaffie, & Coghill, 2012). This created a black market for the drug, where prices soared to $80 or more for a single pill. This theory is supported by Ernest Hilgards research into hypnosis and pain. Some newer CPAP masks are smaller and cover only the nose. REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD)occurs when the muscle paralysis associated with the REM sleep phase does not occur. Given the average life expectancy for U.S. citizens falls between 73 and 79 years old (Singh & Siahpush, 2006), we can expect to spend approximately 25 years of our lives sleeping. This is similar to the kind of paralysis experienced by healthy individuals during REM sleep (Burgess & Scammell, 2012; Hishikawa & Shimizu, 1995; Luppi et al., 2011). When people have difficulty getting sleep due to their work or the demands of day-to-day life, they accumulate a sleep debt. To keep heroin affordable, many dealers began adding more potent synthetic opioids including fentanyl and carfentanyl to increase the effects of heroin. The freebase version of cocaine, known as crack, is a potent, smokable version of the drug. Site has information/education resources on a broad range of topics, including asthma, birth defects, radiation, sanitation, lead in blood, and more. As one of their mechanisms of action, cocaine and amphetamines block the reuptake of dopamine from the synapse into the presynaptic cell. Upon admission to an outpatient clinic for treatment of mood disorders, she met all of the diagnostic criteria for substance dependence and was advised to dramatically limit her caffeine intake. Alan Hobson, a neuroscientist, is credited for developing activation-synthesis theory of dreaming. Body temperature rises throughout the waking day, peaking in the afternoon, and falls during sleep with the lowest point occurring during the very early morning hours. Some of these approaches, such as using a bright light as shown inFigure 4.4, have been shown to alleviate some of the problems experienced by individuals suffering from jet lag or from the consequences of rotating shift work. In fact, this relationship is so robust that some view the presence of RBD as a potential aid in the diagnosis and treatment of a number of neurodegenerative diseases (Ferini-Strambi, 2011). Guilleminault et al. Train your body to associate the bed with sleeping rather than other activities like studying, eating, or watching television shows. 1. Diarrhea. It is relatively easy to wake someone from stage 1 sleep; in fact, people often report that they have not been asleep if they are awoken during stage 1 sleep. A person who has a substance use disorder often uses more of the substance than they originally intended to and continues to use that substance despite experiencing significant adverse consequences. Two theories attempt to answer this question: One theory views hypnosis as dissociation and the other theory views it as the performance of a social role. Access for free athttps://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction. High doses can induce sleep, cause motor disturbance, memory loss, decreased respiratory function, and death. These synthetic drugs are so potent that even small doses can cause overdose and death. For instance, if a woman dreams about being chased by a snake, Freud might have argued that this represents the womans fear of sexual intimacy, with the snake serving as a symbol of a mans penis. While sleep apnea is less common in thin people, anyone, regardless of their weight, who snores loudly or gasps for air while sleeping, should be checked for sleep apnea. As mentioned earlier, lack of sleep can result in decreased mental alertness and cognitive function. (b) Heroin is cooked on a spoon over a candle. (2005) found that sleepwalking was not alleviated with the use of benzodiazepines. The typical positive symptoms of schizophrenia , such as hallucinatory experiences or fixed delusional beliefs, tend to be very upsetting and disruptivenot a positive experience at all for you or someone you care about who is experiencing them. Thus we sleep in safe areas to reduce the chance of harm. By the end of this section, you will be able to: Consciousnessdescribes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. Not able to pass stool or gas. It may seem counterintuitive that stimulant medications are prescribed to treat a disorder that involves hyperactivity, but the therapeutic effect comes from increases in neurotransmitter activity within certain areas of the brain associated with impulse control. In addition, these individuals may wake up several times during the night only to find that they have difficulty getting back to sleep. Recently, a new EPAP (expiratory positive air pressure) device has shown promise in double-blind trials as one such alternative (Berry, Kryger, & Massie, 2011). People sleep better in cooler temperatures. This section will consider these questions and explore various explanations for why we sleep. These will soon, in all ordinary cases, subdue the most distressing symptoms, and effect a perfect cure in a day or two. There are a variety of drugs that treat restless leg syndrome: benzodiazepines, opiates, and anticonvulsants (Restless Legs Syndrome Foundation, n.d.). This figure illustrates some of the negative consequences of sleep deprivation. 1. Early attempts to treat her condition with a stimulant drug alone were unsuccessful. Our lives involve regular, dramatic changes in the degree to which we are aware of our surroundings and our internal states. . Hypnosisis a state of extreme self-focus and attention in which minimal attention is given to external stimuli. Clonazepam, an anti-anxiety medication with sedative properties, is most often used to treat RBD. Some of these areas include the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the pons. Aside from the role that REM sleep may play in processes related to learning and memory, REM sleep may also be involved in emotional processing and regulation. However, the success rate of such treatments is questionable. It is administered alone or in conjunction with doses of melatonin (the hormone secreted by the pineal gland). We might also experience unconscious states of being via drug-induced anesthesia for medical purposes. Typically, individuals suffering from night terrors will fall back asleep again within a short time. For individuals who are especially open to the power of suggestion, hypnosis can prove to be a very effective technique, and brain imaging studies have demonstrated that hypnotic states are associated with global changes in brain functioning (Del Casale et al., 2012; Guldenmund, Vanhaudenhuyse, Boly, Laureys, & Soddu, 2012). Ethanol, which we commonly refer to as alcohol, is in a class of psychoactive drugs known as depressants (Figure 4.15). While many users snort cocaine, intravenous injection and inhalation (smoking) are also common. When we are very young, we spend up to 16 hours a day sleeping. Thus, K-complexes might serve as a bridge to higher levels of arousal in response to what is going on in our environments (Halsz, 1993; Steriade & Amzica, 1998). Sleep reboundrefers to the fact that a sleep-deprived individual will fall asleep more quickly during subsequent opportunities for sleep. Often, we are not completely aware of our surroundings, even when we are fully awake. Contrary to popular belief, individuals undergoing hypnosis usually have clear memories of the hypnotic experience and are in control of their own behaviors. Alertness is associated with higher body temperatures, and sleepiness with lower body temperatures. One or two nights of sleep difficulty is not unusual, but if you experience anything more than that, you should seek a doctors advice. In Falaters case, a jury found him guilty of first degree murder in June of 1999 (CNN, 1999); however, there are other murder cases where the sleepwalking defense has been used successfully. Dreams and their associated meanings vary across different cultures and periods of time. Theta waves still dominate the activity of the brain, but they are interrupted by brief bursts of activity known as sleep spindles (Figure 4.9). In fact, abuse of prescription opioid medications is becoming a major concern worldwide (Aquina, Marques-Baptista, Bridgeman, & Merlin, 2009; Casati, Sedefov, & Pfeiffer-Gerschel, 2012). As discussed by Siegel (2008), a definition of sleep must also include mention of the interplay of the circadian and homeostatic mechanisms that regulate sleep. Generally, narcolepsy is treated using psychomotor stimulant drugs, such as amphetamines (Mignot, 2012). Two of them I didnt even know I was involved in until afterwards (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013, p. 52).